тел. +38 (044) 483-12-82

№2(7) 2024

Укр

DOI 10.37219/2528-8253-2024-2-60

Medvediev VV
COCHLEA: MULTUM IN PARVO. PART TWO
Medvediev Volodymyr V
Bogomolets National Medical University
Professor of the Department of Neurosurgery
Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor
Еmail: vavo2010@gmail.com  
Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7236-3191
Scopus Author ID: 57195130399
ResearcherID: P-7278-2018

Abstract

The article briefly reviews modern ideas about the tonotopic characteristics of the cochlea, the peripheral mechanisms of tonally differentiated sound perception, the significance of the electromotility of outer hair cells, as well as about the numerous tissue barriers of the inner ear, the population of neurons of the spiral node and olivocochlear neurons. The available data are convincing in the eccentric complexity of the cochlea arrangement. Despite popular scientific ideas, the mechanisms of tonally accurate auditory perception remain poorly understood. Against the background of the significant prevalence of hearing disorders, the small number of receptor cells and their seemingly trivial structure, the fact of the complete absence of tissue regeneration of the human inner ear seems incomprehensible. One of the explanations for this limitation is the overly complex arrangement of the inner ear – so finely coordinated that a discrete, nonintegral restoration of the receptor cells population and in the absence of obligate spatial maps of morphogens characteristic of the intrauterine period, will only disrupt the precise organization of the spiral organ receptor apparatus and significantly distort hearing.

Key words: cochlea, spiral organ, basilar membrane, tone discrimination, tonotopy, outer hair cells, electromotility, spiral ganglion neurons, olivocochlear neurons, fluids and barriers of the inner ear.

Download .PDF

References

  1. Ashmore J. The neuroscience of hearing or how to do a hard job with soft components. Brain Neurosci Adv. 2018 Nov 8;2:2398212818810687. doi: 10.1177/2398212818810687.
  2. Gage NM, Baars BJ, editors. Fundamentals of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2nd  ed. Academic Press; 2018. Chapter 5, Sound, Speech, and Music Perception; p. 143-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803813-0.00005-2.
  3. Olusanya BO, Davis AC, Hoffman HJ. Hearing loss: rising prevalence and impact. Bull World Health Organ. 2019 Oct 1;97(10):646-646A. doi: 10.2471/BLT.19.224683.
  4. Kandler K, Clause A, Noh J. Tonotopic reorganization of developing auditory brainstem circuits. Nat Neurosci. 2009 Jun;12(6):711-7. doi: 10.1038/nn.2332.
  5. Besle J, Mougin O, Sánchez-Panchuelo RM, Lanting C, Gowland P, Bowtell R, Francis S, Krumbholz K. Is Human Auditory Cortex Organization Compatible With the Monkey Model? Contrary Evidence From Ultra-High-Field Functional and Structural MRI. Cereb Cortex. 2019 Jan 1;29(1):410-428. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhy267.
  6. Li H, Helpard L, Ekeroot J, Rohani SA, Zhu N, Rask-Andersen H, Ladak HM, Agrawal S. Three-dimensional tonotopic mapping of the human cochlea based on synchrotron radiation phase-contrast imaging. Sci Rep. 2021 Feb 24;11(1):4437. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-83225-w.
  7. Mann ZF, Kelley MW. Development of tonotopy in the auditory periphery. Hear Res. 2011 Jun; 276(1-2):2-15. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2011.01.011.
  8. Basch ML, Brown RM 2nd, Jen HI, Groves AK. Where hearing starts: the development of the mammalian cochlea. J Anat. 2016 Feb;228(2):233-54. doi: 10.1111/joa.12314.
  9. Frank MM, Goodrich LV. Talking back: Development of the olivocochlear efferent system. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol. 2018 Nov; 7(6):e324. doi: 10.1002/wdev.324.
  10. Fettiplace R, Nam JH. Tonotopy in calcium homeostasis and vulnerability of cochlear hair cells. Hear Res. 2019 May;376:11-21. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2018.11.002.
  11. Caprara GA, Peng AW. Mechanotransduction in mammalian sensory hair cells. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2022 May;120:103706. doi: 10.1016/j.mcn.2022.103706.
  12. Altoè A, Shera CA. The cochlear ear horn: geometric origin of tonotopic variations in auditory signal processing. Sci Rep. 2020 Nov 25;10(1): 20528. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-77042-w.
  13. Babahosseini H, Belyantseva IA, Yousaf R, Tona R, Hadi S, Inagaki S, Wilson E, Kitajiri SI, Frolenkov GI, Friedman TB, Cartagena-Rivera AX. Unbalanced bidirectional radial stiffness gradients within the organ of Corti promoted by TRIOBP. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2022 Jun 28;119 (26):e2115190119. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2115190119.
  14. McPherson DR. Sensory Hair Cells: An Introduction to Structure and Physiology. Integr Comp Biol. 2018 Aug 1;58(2):282-300. doi: 10.1093/icb/icy064.
  15. Fettiplace R. Diverse Mechanisms of Sound Frequency Discrimination in the Vertebrate Cochlea. Trends Neurosci. 2020 Feb;43(2):88-102. doi: 10. 1016/j.tins.2019.12.003.
  16. Fettiplace R. Hair Cell Transduction, Tuning, and Synaptic Transmission in the Mammalian Cochlea. Compr Physiol. 2017 Sep 12;7(4):1197-1227. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c160049.
  17. Jia S, He DZ. Motility-associated hair-bundle motion in mammalian outer hair cells. Nat Neurosci. 2005 Aug;8(8):1028-34. doi: 10.1038/nn1509.
  18. Kennedy HJ, Crawford AC, Fettiplace R. Force generation by mammalian hair bundles supports a role in cochlear amplification. Nature. 2005 Feb 24;433(7028):880-3. doi: 10.1038/nature03367.
  19. Fettiplace R. Active hair bundle movements in auditory hair cells. J Physiol. 2006 Oct 1;576(Pt 1):29-36. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2006.115949.
  20. Brownell WE, Bader CR, Bertrand D, de Ribaupierre Y. Evoked mechanical responses of isolated cochlear outer hair cells. Science. 1985; 227(4683):194-6. doi: 10.1126/science.3966153.
  21. Ashmore JF. A fast motile response in guinea-pig outer hair cells: the cellular basis of the cochlear amplifier. J Physiol. 1987 Jul;388:323-47. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1987.sp016617.
  22. Ashmore J. Cochlear outer hair cell motility. Physiol Rev. 2008 Jan;88(1):173-210. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00044.2006.
  23. Ashmore J. Outer Hair Cells and Electromotility. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2019 Jul 1;9(7): a033522. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a033522.
  24. Kalinec F, Holley MC, Iwasa KH, Lim DJ, Kachar B. A membrane-based force generation mechanism in auditory sensory cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Sep 15;89(18):8671-5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.18.8671.
  25. Elgoyhen AB, Franchini LF. Prestin and the cholinergic receptor of hair cells: positively-selected proteins in mammals. Hear Res. 2011 Mar;273(1-2):100-8. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2009.12.028.
  26. Abrusci G, Tarenzi T, Sturlese M, Giachin G, Battistutta R, Lattanzi G. Comparative Molecular Dynamics Investigation of the Electromotile Hearing Protein Prestin. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Aug 2;22(15):8318. doi: 10.3390/ijms22158318.
  27. Futamata H, Fukuda M, Umeda R, Yamashita K, Tomita A, Takahashi S, Shikakura T, Hayashi S, Kusakizako T, Nishizawa T, Homma K, Nureki O. Cryo-EM structures of thermostabilized prestin provide mechanistic insights underlying outer hair cell electromotility. Nat Commun. 2022 Oct 20;13(1):6208. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-34017-x.
  28. Butan C, Song Q, Bai JP, Tan WJT, Navaratnam D, Santos-Sacchi J. Single particle cryo-EM structure of the outer hair cell motor protein prestin. Nat Commun. 2022 Jan 12;13(1):290. doi: 10. 1038/s41467-021-27915-z.
  29. Climer LK, Cox AM, Reynolds TJ, Simmons DD. Oncomodulin: The Enigmatic Parvalbumin Protein. Front Mol Neurosci. 2019 Oct 9;12:235. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2019.00235.
  30. Altoè A, Shera CA. The Long Outer-Hair-Cell RC Time Constant: A Feature, Not a Bug, of the Mammalian Cochlea. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol. 2023 Apr;24(2):129-145. doi: 10.1007/s10162-022-00884-w.
  31. Takahashi S, Zhou Y, Kojima T, Cheatham MA, Homma K. Prestin’s fast motor kinetics is essential for mammalian cochlear amplification. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2023 Mar 14;120(11):e2217891120. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2217891120.
  32. Zheng J, Takahashi S, Zhou Y, Cheatham MA. Prestin and electromotility may serve multiple roles in cochlear outer hair cells. Hear Res. 2022;423:108428. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2021.108428.
  33. Zhang XD, Thai PN, Ren L, Perez Flores MC, Ledford HA, Park S, Lee JH, Sihn CR, Chang CW, Chen WC, Timofeyev V, Zuo J, Chan JW, Yamoah EN, Chiamvimonvat N. Prestin amplifies cardiac motor functions. Cell Rep. 2021 May 4;35(5):109097. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109097.
  34. Zwislocki JJ. Theory of cochlear mechanics. Hear Res. 1980 Jun;2(3-4):171-82. doi: 10.1016/0378-5955(80)90055-6.
  35. Neely ST. Mathematical modeling of cochlear mechanics. J Acoust Soc Am. 1985 Jul;78(1 Pt 2):345-52. doi: 10.1121/1.392497.
  36. Robles L, Ruggero MA. Mechanics of the mammalian cochlea. Physiol Rev. 2001 Jul;81(3):1305-52. doi: 10.1152/physrev.2001.81.3.1305.
  37. Ni G, Elliott SJ, Ayat M, Teal PD. Modelling cochlear mechanics. Biomed Res Int. 2014; 2014:150637. doi: 10.1155/2014/150637.
  38. Reichenbach T, Hudspeth AJ. The physics of hearing: fluid mechanics and the active process of the inner ear. Rep Prog Phys. 2014 Jul;77(7):076601. doi: 10.1088/0034-4885/77/7/076601.
  39. Li Y, Grosh K. The Coda of the Transient Response in a Sensitive Cochlea: A Computational Modeling Study. PLoS Comput Biol. 2016 Jul 5; 12(7):e1005015. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005015.
  40. Berger J, Rubinstein J. A flexible anatomical set of mechanical models for the organ of Corti. R Soc Open Sci. 2021 Sep 15;8(9):210016. doi: 10.1098/rsos.210016.
  41. Sellon JB, Ghaffari R, Freeman DM. The Tectorial Membrane: Mechanical Properties and Functions. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2019 Oct 1; 9(10):a033514. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a033514.
  42. Richardson GP, Lukashkin AN, Russell IJ. The tectorial membrane: one slice of a complex cochlear sandwich. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008 Oct;16(5):458-64. doi: 10.1097/MOO.0b013e32830e20c4.
  43. Hakizimana P, Fridberger A. Inner hair cell stereocilia are embedded in the tectorial membrane. Nat Commun. 2021 May 10;12(1):2604. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-22870-1.
  44. Nankali A, Wang Y, Strimbu CE, Olson ES, Grosh K. A role for tectorial membrane mechanics in activating the cochlear amplifier. Sci Rep. 2020; 10(1):17620. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-73873-9.
  45. Burwood G, He WX, Fridberger A, Ren TY, Nuttall AL. Outer hair cell driven reticular lamina mechanical distortion in living cochleae. Hear Res. 2022 Sep 15;423:108405. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2021.108405.
  46. Zagadou BF, Mountain DC. Analysis of the cochlear amplifier fluid pump hypothesis. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol. 2012 Apr;13(2):185-97. doi: 10.1007/s10162-011-0308-x.
  47. Zagadou BF, Barbone PE, Mountain DC. Significance of the Microfluidic Flow Inside the Organ of Corti. J Biomech Eng. 2020 Aug 1;142(8):081009. doi: 10.1115/1.4046637.
  48. Kimura RS. The ultrastructure of the organ of Corti. Int Rev Cytol. 1975;42:173-222. doi: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60981-x.
  49. Booth KT, Azaiez H, Jahan I, Smith RJH, Fritzsch B. Intracellular Regulome Variability Along the Organ of Corti: Evidence, Approaches, Challenges, and Perspective. Front Genet. 2018 May 8;9: 156. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00156.
  50. Requena T, Gallego-Martinez A, Lopez-Escamez JA. Bioinformatic Integration of Molecular Networks and Major Pathways Involved in Mice Cochlear and Vestibular Supporting Cells. Front Mol Neurosci. 2018 Apr 5;11:108. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00108.
  51. Meenderink SWF, Dong W. Organ of Corti vibrations are dominated by longitudinal motion in vivo. Commun Biol. 2022 Nov 24;5(1):1285. doi: 10.1038/s42003-022-04234-7.
  52. Wang Y, Steele CR, Puria S, Ricci AJ. In situ motions of individual inner-hair-cell stereocilia from stapes stimulation in adult mice. Commun Biol. 2021 Aug 11;4(1):958. doi: 10.1038/s42003-021-02459-6.
  53. Carricondo F, Romero-Gómez B. The Cochlear Spiral Ganglion Neurons: The Auditory Portion of the VIII Nerve. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2019 Mar;302(3):463-471. doi: 10.1002/ar.23815.
  54. Johnson SL, Safieddine S, Mustapha M, Marcotti W. Hair Cell Afferent Synapses: Function and Dysfunction. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2019 Dec 2;9(12):a033175. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a033175.
  55. Spoendlin H, Schrott A. Analysis of the human auditory nerve. Hear Res. 1989 Dec;43(1):25-38. doi: 10.1016/0378-5955(89)90056-7.
  56. Zhang KD, Coate TM. Recent advances in the development and function of type II spiral ganglion neurons in the mammalian inner ear. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2017 May;65:80-87. doi: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.09.017.
  57. Arnold W. Myelination of the human spiral ganglion. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 1987;436:76-84. doi: 10.3109/00016488709124979.
  58. Felix H. Anatomical differences in the peripheral auditory system of mammals and man. A mini review. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2002;59:1-10. doi: 10.1159/000059235.
  59. Flores EN, Duggan A, Madathany T, Hogan AK, Márquez FG, Kumar G, Seal RP, Edwards RH, Liberman MC, García-Añoveros J. A non-canonical pathway from cochlea to brain signals tissue-damaging noise. Curr Biol. 2015 Mar 2;25(5):606-12. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.009.
  60. Maison S, Liberman LD, Liberman MC. Type II Cochlear Ganglion Neurons Do Not Drive the Olivocochlear Reflex: Re-Examination of the Cochlear Phenotype in Peripherin Knock-Out Mice. eNeuro. 2016 Aug 17;3(4):ENEURO.0207-16.2016. doi: 10.1523/ENEURO.0207-16.2016.
  61. Fuchs PA, Glowatzki E. Synaptic studies inform the functional diversity of cochlear afferents. Hear Res. 2015 Dec;330(Pt A):18-25. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2015.09.007.
  62. Weisz CJC, Williams SG, Eckard CS, Divito CB, Ferreira DW, Fantetti KN, Dettwyler SA, Cai HM, Rubio ME, Kandler K, Seal RP. Outer Hair Cell Glutamate Signaling through Type II Spiral Ganglion Afferents Activates Neurons in the Cochlear Nucleus in Response to Nondamaging Sounds. J Neurosci. 2021 Mar 31;41(13):2930-2943. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0619-20.2021.
  63. Rutherford MA, von Gersdorff H, Goutman JD. Encoding sound in the cochlea: from receptor potential to afferent discharge. J Physiol. 2021 May;599(10):2527-2557. doi: 10.1113/JP279189.
  64. Cant NB, Benson CG. Parallel auditory pathways: projection patterns of the different neuronal populations in the dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei. Brain Res Bull. 2003 Jun 15;60(5-6):457-74. doi: 10.1016/s0361-9230(03)00050-9.
  65. Pickles JO. Auditory pathways: anatomy and physiology. Handb Clin Neurol. 2015;129:3-25. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-62630-1.00001-9.
  66. Souffi S, Nodal FR, Bajo VM, Edeline JM. When and How Does the Auditory Cortex Influence Subcortical Auditory Structures? New Insights About the Roles of Descending Cortical Projections. Front Neurosci. 2021 Aug 3;15: 690223. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2021.690223.
  67. Kandler K, editor. The Oxford Handbook of the Auditory Brainstem. Oxford University Press; 2018. Chapter 22. Schofield BR, Beebe NL. Descending Auditory Pathways and Plasticity; p. 611-638. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190849061.013.17.
  68. Romero GE, Trussell LO. Central circuitry and function of the cochlear efferent systems. Hear Res. 2022 Nov;425:108516. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2022.108516.
  69. Lin CJ, Bozovic D. Effects of Efferent Activity on Hair Bundle Mechanics. J Neurosci. 2020 Mar 18;40(12):2390-2402. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1312-19.2020.
  70. Froud KE, Wong AC, Cederholm JM, Klugmann M, Sandow SL, Julien JP, Ryan AF, Housley GD. Type II spiral ganglion afferent neurons drive medial olivocochlear reflex suppression of the cochlear amplifier. Nat Commun. 2015 May 12;6: 7115. doi: 10.1038/ncomms8115.
  71. Li Y, Grosh K. Direction of wave propagation in the cochlea for internally excited basilar membrane. J Acoust Soc Am. 2012 Jun;131(6): 4710-21. doi: 10.1121/1.4707505.
  72. Chen F, Zha D, Yang X, Hubbard A, Nuttall A. Hydromechanical Structure of the Cochlea Supports the Backward Traveling Wave in the Cochlea In Vivo. Neural Plast. 2018 Jul 17;2018: 7502648. doi: 10.1155/2018/7502648.
  73. Ghosh S, Stansak K, Walters BJ. Cannabinoid Signaling in Auditory Function and Development. Front Mol Neurosci. 2021 May 17;14:678510. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.678510.
  74. Bhat V, Onaivi ES, Sharma V. Endocannabinoid system components as potential neuroimmune therapeutic targets in tinnitus. Front Neurol. 2023; 14:1148327. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1148327.
  75. Kong L, Domarecka E, Szczepek AJ. Histamine and Its Receptors in the Mammalian Inner Ear: A Scoping Review. Brain Sci. 2023 Jul 20;13(7): 1101. doi: 10.3390/brainsci13071101.
  76. Vlajkovic SM, Thorne PR. Purinergic Signalling in the Cochlea. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Nov 28;23(23): 14874. doi: 10.3390/ijms232314874.
  77. Mei X, Atturo F, Wadin K, Larsson S, Agrawal S, Ladak HM, Li H, Rask-Andersen H. Human inner ear blood supply revisited: the Uppsala collection of temporal bone-an international resource of education and collaboration. Ups J Med Sci. 2018 Sep;123(3):131-142. doi: 10.1080/03009734.2018.1492654.
  78. Mei X, Glueckert R, Schrott-Fischer A, Li H, Ladak HM, Agrawal SK, Rask-Andersen H. Vascular Supply of the Human Spiral Ganglion: Novel Three-Dimensional Analysis Using Synchrotron Phase-Contrast Imaging and Histology. Sci Rep. 2020 Apr 3;10(1):5877. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-62653-0.
  79. Yimtae K, Song H, Billings P, Harris JP, Keithley EM. Connection between the inner ear and the lymphatic system. Laryngoscope. 2001 Sep;111 (9):1631-5. doi: 10.1097/00005537-200109000-00026.
  80. Salt AN, Hirose K. Communication pathways to and from the inner ear and their contributions to drug delivery. Hear Res. 2018 May;362:25-37. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2017.12.010.
  81. Jenkins DB, Henson MM, Henson OW Jr. Ultrastructure of the lining of the scala tympani of the bat, Pteronotus parnellii. Hear Res. 1983 Jul; 11(1):23-32. doi: 10.1016/0378-5955(83)90042-4.
  82. Lo WW, Daniels DL, Chakeres DW, Linthicum FH Jr, Ulmer JL, Mark LP, Swartz JD. The endolymphatic duct and sac. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1997 May;18(5):881-7.
  83. Gopen Q, Rosowski JJ, Merchant SN. Anatomy of the normal human cochlear aqueduct with functional implications. Hear Res. 1997 May;107(1-2):9-22. doi: 10.1016/s0378-5955(97)00017-8.
  84. Li Z, Shi D, Li H, Tan S, Liu Y, Qi C, Tang A. Micro-CT study of the human cochlear aqueduct. Surg Radiol Anat. 2018 Jun;40(6):713-720. doi: 10.1007/s00276-018-2020-6.
  85. Naganawa S, Satake H, Iwano S, Sone M, Nakashima T. Communication between cochlear perilymph and cerebrospinal fluid through the cochlear modiolus visualized after intratympanic administration of Gd-DTPA. Radiat Med. 2008 Dec;26(10):597-602. doi: 10.1007/s11604-008-0286-z.
  86. Satzer D, Guillaume DJ. Hearing loss in hydrocephalus: a review, with focus on mechanisms. Neurosurg Rev. 2016 Jan;39(1):13-24; discussion 25. doi: 10.1007/s10143-015-0650-2.
  87. Fisch U. Transtemporal surgery of the internal auditory canal. Report of 92 cases, technique, indications and results. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 1970; 17:203-40.
  88. Silverstein H, Makimoto K. Superior vestibular and “singular nerve” section–animal and clinical studies. Laryngoscope. 1973 Sep;83(9):1414-32. doi: 10.1288/00005537-197309000-00004.
  89. Okano Y, Sando I, Myers EN. Branch of the singular nerve (posterior ampullary nerve) in the otic capsule. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1980;89(1 Pt 1):13-9. doi: 10.1177/000348948008900105.
  90. Silverstein H, Norrell H, Smouha E, Haberkamp T. The singular canal: a valuable landmark in surgery of the internal auditory canal. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1988 Feb;98(2):138-43. doi: 10.1177/019459988809800207.
  91. Chole RA, Tinling SP. Incomplete coverage of mammalian bone matrix by lining cells. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1993 Jul;102(7):543-50. doi: 10.1177/000348949310200710.
  92. Chole RA, Tinling SP. Bone lining cells of the mammalian cochlea. Hear Res. 1994 May;75(1-2): 233-43. doi: 10.1016/0378-5955(94)90074-4.
  93. Zou J, Pyykkö I, Counter SA, Klason T, Bretlau P, Bjelke B. In vivo observation of dynamic perilymph formation using 4.7 T MRI with gadolinium as a tracer. Acta Otolaryngol. 2003 Oct;123(8): 910-5. doi: 10.1080/00016480310000548.
  94. Stimmer H. Enlargement of the cochlear aqueduct: does it exist? Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2011 Nov;268(11):1655-61. doi: 10.1007/s00405-011-1527-9.
  95. Manzo RP, Gomez DG, Potts DG. Cerebrospinal fluid absorption in the rabbit. Inner ear pathways. Acta Otolaryngol. 1990 May-Jun;109(5-6):389-96. doi: 10.3109/00016489009125160.
  96. Tsymbalyuk V, Medvedev V. [Man and his brain: [monograph: in 3 vol.]. 2nd ed. Vinnytsia: New book; 2023. Vol. 2. 448 p. [In Ukrainian].
  97. van Dieken A, Staecker H, Schmitt H, Harre J, Pich A, Roßberg W, Lenarz T, Durisin M, Warnecke A. Bioinformatic Analysis of the Perilymph Proteome to Generate a Human Protein Atlas. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022 Apr 28;10:847157. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2022.847157.
  98. Rohde M, Sinicina I, Horn A, Eichner N, Meister G, Strupp M, Himmelein S. MicroRNA profile of human endo-/perilymph. J Neurol. 2018 Oct;265(Suppl 1):26-28. doi: 10.1007/s00415-018-8862-3.
  99. Thulasiram MR, Ogier JM, Dabdoub A. Hearing Function, Degeneration, and Disease: Spotlight on the Stria Vascularis. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022 Mar 4;10:841708. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2022.841708.
  100. Yu W, Zong S, Du P, Zhou P, Li H, Wang E, Xiao H. Role of the Stria Vascularis in the Pathogenesis of Sensorineural Hearing Loss: A Narrative Review. Front Neurosci. 2021 Nov 19;15:774585. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2021.774585.
  101. Ito T, Kurata N, Fukunaga Y. Tissue-Resident Macrophages in the Stria Vascularis. Front Neurol. 2022;13:818395. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2022.818395.
  102. Liu W, Danckwardt-Lillieström N, Schrott-Fischer A, Glueckert R, Rask-Andersen H. Distribution of Immune Cells Including Macrophages in the Human Cochlea. Front Neurol. 2021 Nov 22;12:781702. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2021.781702.
  103. Hayashi Y, Suzuki H, Nakajima W, Uehara I, Tanimura A, Himeda T, Koike S, Katsuno T, Kitajiri SI, Koyanagi N, Kawaguchi Y, Onomoto K, Kato H, Yoneyama M, Fujita T, Tanaka N. Cochlear supporting cells function as macrophage-like cells and protect audiosensory receptor hair cells from pathogens. Sci Rep. 2020; 10(1):6740. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-63654-9.